The Construction of Spectacular Religious-Political Rituals in Iran; A Critical Study

Momeni, Ali; Bicharanlou, Abdollah

doi:10.22059/jcss.2025.395162.1147

The Construction of Spectacular Religious-Political Rituals in Iran; A Critical Study

Articles in Press

Document Type : Original article

Authors

Department of Social Communication, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran.

10.22059/jcss.2025.395162.1147

Abstract

Background: Following the Islamic Revolution and the expansion of access to visual media, the use of this media in Shia rituals, such as religious gatherings (hey’ats), significantly increased. In recent years, a new form of Shia ritual, referred to as “public communities”, has emerged which organized by cultural institutions. These communities differ markedly from traditional Shia-Iranian rituals and have established a distinct communicative domain.
Aims: This study aims to critically examine these events by identifying their constitutive components and analyzing the nature of their mediatization.
Methodology: Three events held in the Iranian calendar year 1401 were analyzed using a qualitative content analysis approach. These Shia-revolutionary performative rituals are categorized into two main domains: the “Public construction of the ritual” and the “construction of the presence and positioning of the subject”. Their media representation is also shaped by two principal categories: the “transitionalization of the communication mode” and “ideological representation”.
Findings: Our findings indicate that the organization and media representation of these events produce a spectacular pseudo-ritual that significantly diverges from traditional Shia rituals in Iran.
Conclusion: These events have been organized and represented in ways that prioritize spectacle, visibility, and media populism, thus enabling a transformation in ritual structures and indicating a growing tendency toward mediatization in Iran.

Keywords

Main Subjects

media

References

Bauer, M.W. (2000). “Classical content analysis: A review”. In M. W. Bauer, & G. Gaskell. Qualitative Researching with Text, Image and Sound (pp. 131-151). London: Sage.

Bebi, E. (2020). Research Methods in Social Sciences (Vol. 2). Reza Fazel (Trans.) Tehran: Samt. [in Persian]

Benjamin, W. (1969). lluminations. Essay and reflections. New York: Shocken.

Bichranlou, A. & Haji-Mohammadi, A. (2011). "Interaction of religion and media in the new media space". Qom: Islamic Research Department. [in Persian]

Bonville, L.; Groujan, S. & Legse, M. (2022). Introduction to Research Methods in Communication. Mehdi Fatoorechi and Farhad Foroghi (Trans.) Tehran: Scientific and Cultural Publications. [in Persian]

Campbell, H.A. (2016). “Surveying theoretical approaches within digital religion studies”. New Media & Society. 19(1): 15-24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1461444816649912.

Carey, J.W. (1992). Communication as Culture: Essays on Media and Society. London: Routledge.

Carey, J.W. (1975). “A Cultural approach to communication”. Communication as Culture. 1-22. https://www.academia.edu/download/36578908/2.-_Carey_Cultural_Approach_to_Communication.pdf.

Chaney, D. (1983). “A symbolic mirror of ourselves: Civic ritual in mass society”. Media, Culture and Society. 5(2): 119-135. https://doi.org/10.1177/016344378300500202.

Christians, C.G. (2010). Technology and the Threefold Theory of Media. In Stewart M. H. & Nat Lundby, Reconsidering Media, Religion, and Culture (pp. 111-91). Tehran: Soroush. [in Persian]

Croteau, D. & Hoynes, W. (2012). Media/Society: Industries, Images, and Audiences. M. Yousefi and S. Marzani (Trans.). Tehran: Imam Sadeq University. [in Persian]

Debor, G. (2019). The Society of Spectacle. Goodarz Mirani (Trans.). Tehran: Scientific and Cultural Publications. [in Persian]

Donzbach, W. (2019). Philosophy of Communication: International Encyclopedia of Communication Studies (Vol. 2). Ehsan Shah-Qasemi (Trans.). Tehran: Scientific and Cultural Publications. [in Persian]

Driesens, O. (2022). The Celebrity Society and Culture: Understanding the Structural Dynamics of Celebrity Culture. In Sociology of Celebrity. Fardin Ali-Khoyeh (Trans.), pp. 65-36. Tehran: Gol-Azin. [in Persian]

Durkheim, E. (2021). The Elementary Forms of Religious Life. Baqer Perham (Trans.). Tehran: Markaz. [in Persian]

Fahimi-Far, A. (2014). Visual Representation of Religion in Media. Tehran: Soroush. [in Persian]

Flick, U. (2020). Introduction to Qualitative Research. Hadi Jalili (Trans.). Tehran: Ney. [in Persian]

Grimes, R. (2012). Ritual (Rituals) and Media. In Seyed-Hamid Reza Qadri (Ed.). Essays in Media, Vol. 3, Religion and Media (Abu-al-Fazl Harri (Trans.), pp. 130-107. Qom: University of Religions and Denominations Publishing. [in Persian]

Hall, S. (1997). Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices. London: Sage.

Hjarvard, S. (2008). “The mediatization of society: A theory of the media as agents of social and cultural change”. Nordicom Review. 29: 105-134. https://doi.org/10.1515/nor-2017-0181.

Hoover, S.M. & Lundby, N. (2010). Reconsidering Media, Religion, and Culture. Masoud Ariayi-Nia (Trans.). Tehran: Soroush. [in Persian]

Hsieh, H. & Shannon, S.E. (2005). “Three approaches to qualitative content analysis”. Qualitative Health Research. 15(9): 1277-1288. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732305276687.

Iman, M. & Noushadi, M. (2011). "Qualitative Content Analysis". The Quality of Research in Humanities Quarterly Journal. 6(2):15-44. https://pajohesh.nashriyat.ir/node/62. [in Persian]

Kellner, D. (2020). Media Spectacle. Goodarz Mirani (Trans.) Tehran: Scientific and Cultural Publications. [in Persian]

Khaniki, H. & Farzalian, E. (2014). "The effect of television broadcasts religious programs on the religious audience (with emphasis on religious rituals)". Quarterly of Social Studies and Research in Iran. 3(3): 383-404. https://doi.org/10.22059/jisr.2014.53146. [in Persian]

Kowsari, M. (2008). An Introduction to Popular Music. Tehran: General Directorate of Radio Research. [in Persian]

Lindelof, T. & Taylor, B. (2018). Qualitative Research Methods in Communication Sciences. A. Givian (Trans.). Tehran: Hamshahri Publications. [in Persian]

Lundby, N. (2020). Patterns of Religious Communication Online/Offline. In Digital Religion. Maryam Hashempour Sadeghian & Majid Movahed (Trans.). Tehran: Tarhe-No. [in Persian]

Mahdipour, F. (2013). "A critical examination of the TV Approach to religious rites and a proposal of some policies (with an emphasis on TV programs in Ramadan Month)". Journal of Islam and Social Studies. 1(1): 182-166. https://jiss.isca.ac.ir/article_37.html?lang=en. [in Persian]

Maher, Z. & Keshavarz, Z. (2017). "Media and religion: An analysis of the impact of media representation of religious rituals". Journal of Media. 61-43. https://qjmn.farhang.gov.ir/article_50686.html.

Maqsoudi, M. & Alipour, J. (2011). "Review of Legitimizing Rituals and Symbols at the IRIB Programs Focusing on Religious Practices". Journal of International Relations Studies. 14(4): 116-77. https://sanad.iau.ir/en/Journal/prb/Article/1066478/FullText. [in Persian]

McQuail, D. (2003). An Introduction to Mass Communication Theory. P. Ajlali (Ttrans.). Tehran: Ministry of Culture and Guidance, Center for Media Studies and Research. [in Persian]

Menlimuratova, E.A. (2021). “Ritual culture is the main phenomenon formation of intercultural communication”. Central Asian Journal of Theoretical and Applied Sciences. 2(4): 68-72. https://cajotas.centralasianstudies.org/index.php/CAJOTAS/article/view/118.

Nosraty, N.; Soroori Sarabi, A.; Arsalani, A.; Toosi, R. & Sharajsharifi, M. (2025). “Artificial intelligence for disaster risk management in the beauty industry”. International Journal of Advanced Multidisciplinary Research and Studies. 5(3): 1076-1086. https://doi.org/10.62225/2583049X.2025.5.3.4422.

Palinkas, L.A.; Horwitz, S.M; Green, C.A.; Wisdom, J.P.; Duan, N. & Hoagwood, K.E. (2013). “Purposeful sampling for qualitative data collection and analysis in mixed method implementation research”. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research. 43(5): 533-544. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-013-0528-y.

Perry, R. (2014). Media History: From Gilgamesh to Google. B. Tourani, transl. Tehran: Iran Newspaper Publishing House.

Rahmatian, F. & Sharajsharifi, M. (2022). “Reimagining MBA education in the age of artificial intelligence: A meta-synthesis”. Socio-Spatial Studies. 6(1): 43-50. https://doi.org/10.22034/soc.2022.223610.

Rahmatian, F. & Sharajsharifi, M. (2021). “Artificial intelligence in MBA education: Perceptions, ethics, and readiness among Iranian graduates”. Socio-Spatial Studies. 5(1). https://doi.org/10.22034/soc.2021.223600.

Rothenbuhler, E.W. (2008). Ritual Communication: From Everyday Conversations to Mediated Celebrations. Abdollah Giviyan, Trans. Tehran: Imam Sadeq University Press. [in Persian]

Rowshandel Arbatani, T.; Bashir, H.; Pourezzat, A.A. & Hoseini, S.J. (2016). "Designing a model for the adaptation of media portrayal of pilgrimage ritual to social networks". Journal of Religion and Communication. 22(2): 63-86. https://doi.org/10.30497/rc.2016.1815. [in Perssian]

Shamohamadi, R. & Pasalari Behjani, F. (2012). "Comparing the views of Emile Durkheim and Clifford Geertz on religion with emphasis on their approaches". Journal of Religious Studies. 6(2): 78-53. https://sid.ir/paper/190208/fa. [in Persian]

Somiala, J. (2021). Media and Ritual: Death, Community, and Everyday Life. Nasim Khajehzadeh, Trans. Tehran: Thaleth. [in Persian]

Toosi, R.; Hosseini, S.H.; Nosraty, N. & Rahmatian, F. (2024). “Artificial intelligence, health, and the beauty industry”. International Journal of Advanced Multidisciplinary Research and Studies. 4(3): 1689-1698. https://doi.org/10.62225/2583049X.2024.4.3.4419.

Zokaei, M.S. & Eslami, R. (2020). "Media representation of Arbaeen pilgrimage in Iran: (1392 to 1396)". Journal of Iranian Cultural Research. 13(2): 1-36. https://doi.org/10.22035/jicr.2020.2374.2841. [in Persian].